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Western meadowlark

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with Eastern meadowlark.

Western meadowlark
Song
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Icteridae
Genus: Sturnella
Species:
S. neglecta
Binomial name
Sturnella neglecta
Audubon, 1844
Range of S. neglecta
  Breeding range
  Year-round range
  Wintering range

The western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) is a medium-sized icterid bird, about 8.5 in (22 cm) in length. It nests on the ground in open grasslands across western and central North America. It feeds mostly on bugs, but will also feed on seeds and berries. The western meadowlark has distinctive calls described as watery or flute-like, which distinguish it from the closely related eastern meadowlark. The western meadowlark is the state bird of six states: Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oregon, and Wyoming.

Taxonomy

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The western meadowlark was formally described in 1844 by the American ornithologist John James Audubon under its current binomial name Sturnella neglecta.[2] The specific epithet is from the Latin neglectus meaning "ignored", "overlooked", "neglected" or "disregarded".[3] Audubon explained that although the account of the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1803–1806 mentioned yellow larks, these had never been formally described.[2][4] The type locality is Old Fort Union, North Dakota.[5]

Despite having "lark" in their name due to their melodic song, they are not true Larks, as they are instead in the New World Blackbird family.[6]

Two subspecies are recognised:[7]

  • S. n. neglecta Audubon, 1844 – southwest, south central Canada through the west USA (except coastal Pacific Northwest) to central Mexico
  • S. n. confluenta Rathbun, 1917 – coastal southwest Canada and northwest USA (southwest British Columbia to Oregon)

Western meadowlarks will occasionally interbreed with eastern meadowlarks where their ranges overlap; however, resulting young appear to have low fertility.[8]

Description

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Western meadowlark adults have yellow underparts with a black "V" on the breast and white flanks streaked with black. Their upper parts are mostly brown, but also have black streaks. These birds have long, pointed bills and their heads are striped with light brown and black bands.

Measurements:[9]

  • Length: 6.3–10.2 in (16–26 cm)
  • Weight: 3.1–4.1 oz (88–116 g)
  • Wingspan: 16.1 inches (41 cm)

These birds have a flute-like warbled song. These calls contrast with the simple, whistled call of the eastern meadowlark.

Distribution and habitat

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The breeding habitats of western meadowlarks are grasslands, prairies, pastures, and abandoned fields, all of which may be found across western and central North America, as far south as northern Mexico. In regions where their range overlaps with the eastern species, these birds prefer thinner, drier vegetation; the two type of birds generally do not interbreed but do defend territory against one another. Their nests are situated on the ground and are covered with a roof woven from grass. There may be more than one nesting female in a male's territory. Nests are sometimes destroyed by mowing operations with eggs and young in them.

Western meadowlarks are permanent residents throughout much of their range. Northern birds may migrate to the southern parts of their range; some birds also move east in the southern United States.

It has also been introduced to Hawaii to control insects, and is now found on the island of Kauai. Attempted introductions to other islands failed, likely due to the presence of the small Indian mongoose, which is absent from Kauai.[10]

Behaviour and ecology

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Breeding

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Well hidden nest

The nest is built by the female soon after arrival on the breeding grounds. The nest is placed in a concealed location on the ground. It is variable in form and ranges from a simple cup to a partially roofed structure with a runway extending from the nest entrance. Eggs are laid at daily intervals. Incubation only begins after the last egg is laid. The eggs measure on average 28 mm × 21 mm (1.10 in × 0.83 in) and have brownish spots and blotches on a white ground. The eggs hatch over a period of one or two days after being incubated by the female for 13–15 days. The young are altricial and nearly naked; their eyes are closed until the 4th day. Only the female broods the chicks. The nestlings are almost exclusively fed insects. The male brings food to the nest which is then usually fed to the chicks by the female. The young fledge at 10–12 day but are only capable of sustained flight at around 21 days. The young receive parental care for around 2 weeks after fledging. A second brood is attempted.[11]

The nests are parasitized by brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater).[11]

Food and feeding

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These birds forage on the ground or in low to semi-low vegetation. They sometimes search for food by probing with their bills. They mainly eat insects, although they will consume seeds and berries. In winter, these birds often feed in flocks.

Relationship to humans

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The western meadowlark is the state bird of six states: Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oregon, and Wyoming. The northern cardinal, which represents seven states, is the only bird to hold the status of state bird in more states.[12]

During the 2017 regular session of the Oregon Legislature, there was a short-lived controversy over the western meadowlark's status as state bird versus the osprey. The sometimes-spirited debate included state representative Rich Vial playing the meadowlark's song on his smartphone over the House microphone.[13] A compromise was reached in SCR 18,[14] which was passed on the last day of the session, designating the western meadowlark as the state songbird and the osprey as the state raptor.

References

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  1. ^ BirdLife International (2018). "Sturnella neglecta". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T22724256A132173994. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22724256A132173994.en. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
  2. ^ a b Audubon, John James (1844). "Missouri Meadow-lark". The Birds of America, from drawings made in the United States and their territories. Vol. 7. New York: J.B. Chevalier. pp. 339–341, Plate 489.
  3. ^ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. p. 267. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
  4. ^ Allen, Paul; M'Vickar, Archibald, eds. (1843). History of the expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark, to the sources of the Missouri, thence across the Rocky Mountains and down the river Columbia to the Pacific Ocean: performed during the years 1804, 1805, 1806 by order of the government of the United States. Vol. 1. New York: Harper and Brothers. p. 236.
  5. ^ Paynter, Raymond A. Jr., ed. (1968). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 14. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. pp. 180–181.
  6. ^ Davis, Stephen K.; Lanyon, Wesley E. (March 2020). "Western Meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta), version 1.0". Birds of the World. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. doi:10.2173/bow.wesmea.01.
  7. ^ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (2020). "Oropendolas, orioles, blackbirds". IOC World Bird List Version 10.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
  8. ^ Jaramillo, Alvaro; Peter Burke (1999). New World Blackbirds: The Icterids. London: Christopher Helm. p. 305. ISBN 0-7136-4333-1.
  9. ^ "Western Meadowlark Identification". All About Birds. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
  10. ^ Pyle, Peter and Robert L. "The Birds of the Hawaiian Islands: Occurrence, History, Distribution, and Status" (PDF). hbs.bishopmuseum.org/. Retrieved 22 December 2022.
  11. ^ a b Davis, S.K.; Lanyon, W.E. (2020). Poole, A.F. (ed.). "Western Meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta), version 1.0". Birds of the World. Ithaca, NY, USA: Cornell Lab of Ornithology. doi:10.2173/bow.wesmea.01. Retrieved 10 October 2020.
  12. ^ "Western Meadowlark Overview". All About Birds. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
  13. ^ "Lawmakers adjourn 2017 session with mixed results for biggest priorities". OregonLive.com. 8 July 2017. Retrieved October 15, 2017.
  14. ^ "SCR 18". state.or.us. Retrieved October 15, 2017.

Further reading

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Books

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  • Lanyon, W. E. 1994. Western Meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta). In The Birds of North America, No. 104 (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). Philadelphia: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, D.C.: The American Ornithologists' Union.

Theses

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  • Davis SK. (2003). Habitat selection and demography of mixed-grass prairie songbirds in a fragmented landscape. Ph.D. The University of Regina (Canada), Canada.
  • Horn AG. (1987). Repertoires and song switching in western meadowlarks (Sturnella neglecta). Ph.D. University of Toronto (Canada), Canada.
  • Pierce AM. (1974). Energetics and Water Economy in the Western Meadowlark, Sturnella Neglecta. Ph.D. University of California, Irvine, United States, California.

Articles

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  • Anderson JR & Merritt RW. (1977). "The Impact of Foraging Meadowlarks Sturnella-Neglecta on the Degradation of Cattle Dung Pads". Journal of Applied Ecology. vol. 14, no. 2. pp. 355–362.
  • Anderson RC. (1989). "The Development of Quadriplotriaena-Hypsokysta Nematoda Diplotriaenoidea in Grasshoppers Orthoptera". Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington. vol. 56, no. 2. pp. 199–201.
  • Applegate RD & Willms AG. (1987). "Distribution and Population Trend of Western Meadowlarks in Illinois USA". Prairie Naturalist. vol. 19, no. 3. pp. 145–148.
  • Aweida MK. (1995). "Repertoires, territory size and mate attraction in Western Meadowlarks". The Condor. vol. 97, no. 4. pp. 1080.
  • Bakker KK, Naugle DE & Higgins KF. (2002). "Incorporating landscape attributes into models for migratory grassland bird conservation". Conservation Biology. vol. 16, no. 6. pp. 1638–1646.
  • Belthoff JR, Powers LR & Reynolds TD. (1998). "Breeding birds at the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, 1985–1991". Great Basin Naturalist. vol. 58, no. 2. pp. 167–183.
  • Blair CL & Schitoskey FJ. (1982). "Breeding Biology and Diet of the Ferruginous Hawk Buteo-Regalis in South-Dakota USA". Wilson Bulletin. vol. 94, no. 1. pp. 46–54.
  • Bock CE & Bock JH. (1987). "Avian Habitat Occupancy Following Fire in a Montana USA Shrubsteppe". Prairie Naturalist. vol. 19, no. 3. pp. 153–158.
  • Bock CE, Bock JH & Bennett BC. (1995). "The avifauna of remnant tallgrass prairie near Boulder, Colorado". Prairie Naturalist. vol. 27, no. 3. pp. 147–157.
  • Brandt CA & Rickard WHJ. (1992). "Effects of Survey Frequency on Bird Density Estimates in the Shrub-Steppe Environment". Northwest Science. vol. 66, no. 3. pp. 172–182.
  • Bryan GG & Best LB. (1991). "Bird Abundance and Species Richness in Grassed Waterways in Iowa USA Rowcrop Fields". American Midland Naturalist. vol. 126, no. 1. pp. 90–102.
  • Castrale JS. (1982). "Effects of 2 Sagebrush Artemisia-Spp Control Methods on Nongame Birds". Journal of Wildlife Management. vol. 46, no. 4. pp. 945–952.
  • Cicchino AC & Castro DC. (1996). "Preliminary revision of the species of the genus Brueelia Keler, 1936 (Phthiraptera, Philopteridae) parasitizing Icterinae (Aves, Passeriformes, Fringillidae)". Graellsia. vol. 52, no. 0. pp. 3–30.
  • Cosens SE & Falls JB. (1984). "A Comparison of Sound Propagation and Song Frequency in Temperate Marsh and Grassland Habitats". Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol. 15, no. 3. pp. 161–170.
  • Dale BC, Martin PA & Taylor PS. (1997). "Effects of hay management on grassland songbirds in Saskatchewan". Wildlife Society Bulletin. vol. 25, no. 3. pp. 616–626.
  • Davis CA. (2001). "Abundance and habitat associations of birds wintering in the Platte River Valley, Nebraska". Great Plains Research. vol. 11, no. 2. pp. 233–248.
  • Davis SK. (2003). "Nesting ecology of mixed-grass prairie songbirds in southern Saskatchewan". Wilson Bulletin. vol. 115, no. 2. pp. 119–130.
  • Davis SK. (2004). "Area sensitivity in grassland passerines: Effects of patch size, patch shape, and vegetation structure on bird abundance and occurrence in southern Saskatchewan". Auk. vol. 121, no. 4. pp. 1130–1145.
  • Davis SK. (2005). "Nest-site selection patterns and the influence of vegetation on nest survival of mixed-grass prairie passerines". Condor. vol. 107, no. 3. pp. 605–616.
  • Davis SK, Brigham RM, Shaffer TL & James PC. (2006). "Mixed-grass prairie passerines exhibit weak and variable responses to patch size". Auk. vol. 123, no. 3. pp. 807–821.
  • Deweese LR, McEwen LC, Settimi LA & Deblinger RD. (1983). "Effects on Birds of Fenthion Aerial Application for Mosquito Control". Journal of Economic Entomology. vol. 76, no. 4. pp. 906–911.
  • Dickinson TE & Falls JB. (1989). "How Western Meadowlarks Respond to Simulated Intrusions by Unmated Females". Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol. 25, no. 3. pp. 217–226.
  • Dickinson TE, Falls JB & Kopachena J. (1987). "Effects of Female Pairing Status and Timing of Breeding on Nesting Productivity in Western Meadowlarks Sturnella-Neglecta". Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol. 65, no. 12. pp. 3093–3101.
  • Dieni JS & Jones SL. (2003). "Grassland songbird nest site selection patterns in northcentral Montana". Wilson Bulletin. vol. 115, no. 4. pp. 388–396.
  • Dieni JS & Scherr P. (2004). "Roadside bias in point count surveys at Arrowwood National Wildlife Refuge, North Dakota". Prairie Naturalist. vol. 36, no. 4. pp. 203–211.
  • Ellis CJ. (1973). "Syringeal Histology Part 2 Meadowlark Sturnella-Magna Sturnella-Neglecta". Iowa State Journal of Research. vol. 48, no. 2. pp. 175–191.
  • Erwin WJ & Stasiak RH. (1979). "Vertebrate Mortality During the Burning of a Reestablished Prairie in Nebraska". American Midland Naturalist. vol. 101, no. 1. pp. 247–249.
  • Faanes CA. (1981). "Birds of the St-Croix River Valley Minnesota and Wisconsin USA". North American Fauna. vol. 73, pp. 1–196.
  • Falls JB. (1985). "Song Matching in Western Meadowlarks Sturnella-Neglecta". Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol. 63, no. 11. pp. 2520–2524.
  • Falls JB & D'Agincourt LG. (1981). "A Comparison of Neighbor Stranger Discrimination in Eastern Meadowlarks Sturnella-Magna and Western Meadowlarks Sturnella-Neglecta". Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol. 59, no. 12. pp. 2380–2385.
  • Falls JB, Horn AG & Dickinson TE. (1988). "How Western Meadowlarks Classify Their Songs Evidence from Song Matching". Animal Behaviour. vol. 36, no. 2. pp. 579–585.
  • Falls JB & Krebs JR. (1975). "Sequence of Songs in Repertoires of Western Meadowlarks Sturnella-Neglecta". Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol. 53, no. 8. pp. 1165–1178.
  • Fitzner RE, Berry D, Boyd LL & Rieck CA. (1977). "Nesting of Ferruginous Hawks Buteo-Regalis in Washington 1974–1975". Condor. vol. 79, no. 2. pp. 245–249.
  • Frawley BJ & Best LB. (1991). "Effects of Mowing on Breeding Bird Abundance and Species Composition in Alfalfa Fields". Wildlife Society Bulletin. vol. 19, no. 2. pp. 135–142.
  • George TL, Fowler AC, Knight RL & McEwen LC. (1992). "Impacts of a Severe Drought on Grassland Birds in Western North Dakota". Ecological Applications. vol. 2, no. 3. pp. 275–284.
  • Haire SL, Bock CE, Cade BS & Bennett BC. (2000). "The role of landscape and habitat characteristics in limiting abundance of grassland nesting songbirds in an urban open space". Landscape & Urban Planning. vol. 48, no. 1-2. pp. 65–82.
  • Hanebrink EL. (1971). "Dilute Albinism in a Western Meadowlark Collected in Mississippi County Arkansas". Migrant. vol. 42, no. 4.
  • Higgins KF, Arnold TW & Barta RM. (1984). "Breeding Bird Community Colonization of Sown Stands of Native Grasses in North-Dakota USA". Prairie Naturalist. vol. 16, no. 4. pp. 177–182.
  • Hill RA. (1976). "Host Parasite Relationships of the Brown-Headed Cowbird in a Prairie Habitat of West Central Kansas USA". Wilson Bulletin. vol. 88, no. 4. pp. 555–565.
  • Horn A & Falls JB. (1988). "Structure of Western Meadowlark Sturnella-Neglecta Song Repertoires". Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol. 66, no. 2. pp. 284–288.
  • Horn AG. (1988). "Interspecific Aggression in Western Meadowlarks Sturnella-Neglecta Re-Directed Aggression?". Journal of Field Ornithology. vol. 59, no. 3. pp. 224–226.
  • Horn AG, Dickinson TE & Falls JB. (1993). "Male quality and song repertoires in western meadowlarks (Sturnella neglecta)". Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol. 71, no. 5. pp. 1059–1061.
  • Horn AG & Falls JB. (1988). "Repertoires and Countersinging in Western Meadowlarks (Sturnella neglecta)". Ethology. vol. 77, no. 4. pp. 337–343.
  • Horn AG & Falls JB. (1988). "Responses of Western Meadowlarks Sturnella-Neglecta to Song Repetition and Contrast". Animal Behaviour. vol. 36, no. 1. pp. 291–293.
  • Horn AG & Falls JB. (1991). "Song Switching in Mate Attraction and Territory Defense by Western Meadowlarks (Sturnella neglecta)". Ethology. vol. 87, no. 3-4. pp. 262–268.
  • Horn DJ, Koford RR & Braland ML. (2002). "Effects of field size and landscape composition on grassland birds in south-central Iowa". Journal of the Iowa Academy of Science. vol. 109, no. 1-2. pp. 1–7.
  • Igl LD. (1996). "Western meadowlark impaled on barbed-wire fence". Prairie Naturalist. vol. 28, no. 1. pp. 25–26.
  • Igl LD & Johnson DH. (1997). "Changes in breeding bird populations in North Dakota: 1967 to 1992–93". Auk. vol. 114, no. 1. pp. 74–92.
  • Johnson DH & Igl LD. (2001). "Area requirements of grassland birds: A regional perspective". Auk. vol. 118, no. 1. pp. 24–34.
  • Jones HL. (1968). "Western Meadowlark at Raleigh North-Carolina USA Sturnella-Neglecta Record Song". Chat. vol. 32, no. 4. pp. 104–105.
  • Jones ZF & Bock CE. (2002). "Conservation of grassland birds in an urbanizing landscape: A historical perspective". Condor. vol. 104, no. 3. pp. 643–651.
  • Kantrud HA & Kologiski RL. (1982). "Effects of Soils and Grazing on Breeding Birds of Uncultivated Upland Grasslands of the Northern Great Plains USA". U S Fish & Wildlife Service Wildlife Research Report. vol. 15, pp. 1–33.
  • Kennedy PL, Stahlecker DW & Fair JM. (1995). "Organochlorine concentrations in potential avian prey of breeding peregrine falcons in North-Central New Mexico". Southwestern Naturalist. vol. 40, no. 1. pp. 94–100.
  • King JW & Savidge JA. (1995). "Effects of the Conservation Reserve Program on wildlife in southeast Nebraska". Wildlife Society Bulletin. vol. 23, no. 3. pp. 377–385.
  • Kinstler KA & Sordahl TA. (1994). "A comparison of perch use by vocalizing eastern and western meadowlarks". Prairie Naturalist. vol. 26, no. 3. pp. 195–200.
  • Knick ST & Rotenberry JT. (1995). "Landscape characteristics of fragmented shrubsteppe habitats and breeding passerine birds". Conservation Biology. vol. 9, no. 5. pp. 1059–1071.
  • Knick ST & Rotenberry JT. (2000). "Ghosts of habitats past: Contribution of landscape change to current habitats used by shrubland birds". Ecology. vol. 81, no. 1. pp. 220–227.
  • Lowther PE. (1984). "Repeat of a 1916 Bird Census in Northwestern Iowa USA". Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science. vol. 91, no. 3. pp. 87–91.
  • Madden EM, Hansen AJ & Murphy RK. (1999). "Influence of prescribed fire history on habitat and abundance of passerine birds in northern mixed-grass prairie". Canadian Field Naturalist. vol. 113, no. 4. pp. 627–640.
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  • McGregor PK & Falls JB. (1984). "The Response of Western Meadowlarks Sturnella-Neglecta to the Playback of Undegraded and Degraded Songs". Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol. 62, no. 11. pp. 2125–2128.
  • Miller SG, Knight RL & Miller CK. (2001). "Wildlife responses to pedestrians and dogs". Wildlife Society Bulletin. vol. 29, no. 1. pp. 124–132.
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